BRINGING GAME ELEMENTS TO THE CLASSROOM: THE ROLE OF CHALLENGE AND TECHNOLOGY
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Jun 14, 2019
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Abstract
This paper illustrates a teaching methodology which implements some motivational mechanics of games to help overcome the widespread lack of interest of students and make learning engaging. A learning cycle that promotes three main transformative dimensions within the overall learning process is detailed: from deductive to inductive teaching; from transmissive to constructivist teaching; from summative to formative assessment. Some concrete examples of learning activities are provided. Finally, the implications of the methodology resulting from a quasi-experimental study conducted in a high school are discussed. The study compared two classes, experimental and control, in relation to the following variables: self-determination towards studying, basic psychological needs, and support for autonomy. The results show that there are significant differences in the analyzed variables, suggesting that the proposed methodology could be effective in determining positive changes in motivational dynamics.
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References
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Anolli, L., & Mantovani, F. (2011). Come funziona la nostra mente. Apprendimento, simulazione e Serious Games. Bologna, IT: il Mulino.
Antinucci, F. (2001). La scuola si è rotta. Roma-Bari, IT: Laterza.
Ausubel, D. P., Novak, J. D., & Hanessian, H. (1968). Educational psychology: A cognitive view. New York, NY, USA: Holt Rinehart and Wilson.
Berlyne, D. E. (1960). Conflict, arousal, and curiosity. New York, NY, USA: McGraw-Hill.
Bruner, J. S. (1961). The act of discovery. Harvard Educational Review, 31(1), 21-32.
Calvani, A. (Ed.). (2007). Tecnologia, scuola, processi cognitivi: per una ecologia dell'apprendere. Milano, IT: Franco Angeli.
Cecchinato, G., & Papa, R. (2016). Flipped classroom: Un nuovo modo di insegnare e apprendere. Torino, IT: UTET Università.
Cohen, J. (1988). Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences (2nd ed.). Hillsdale, NJ, USA: Erlbaum.
Covington, M. V. (2000). Goal theory, motivation, and school achievement: An integrative review. Annual Review of Psychology, 51(1), 171-200.
Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (1987). The support of autonomy and the control of behavior. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 53(6), 1024-1037. doi: 10.1037/0022-3514.53.6.1024
Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (2000). The “what” and “why” of goal pursuits: Human needs and the self-determination of behavior. Psychological Inquiry, 11(4), 227-268.
Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (2008). Facilitating optimal motivation and psychological well-being across life's domains. Canadian Psychology, 49(1), 14-23.
Deterding, S., Dixon, D., Khaled, R., & Nacke, L. (2011). From game design elements to gamefulness: defining gamification. Proceedings of the 15th international academic MindTrek conference: Envisioning future media environments, Tampere, Finland.
Dewey, J. (2007). Experience and education. New York, NY, USA: Simon and Schuster.
Dicheva, D., Dichev, C., Agre, G., & Angelova, G. (2015). Gamification in education: a systematic mapping study. Journal of Educational Technology & Society, 18(3), 75-88.
Festinger, L. (1962). A theory of cognitive dissonance. Stanford, CA, USA: Stanford University Press.
Foschi, L. C., & Cecchinato, G. (2018). Flipped classroom: risultati di una sperimentazione condotta presso l'IIS Bosso-Monti di Torino. RicercAzione, 10(1), 195-216.
Freudenthal, H. (2006). Revisiting mathematics education: China lectures (Vol. 9). Amsterdam, NL: Springer Science & Business Media.
Gee, J. P. (2003). What Video Games Have to Teach Us about Learning and Literacy. New York, NY, USA: Palgrave-Macmillan.
Guay, F., Ratelle, C. F., & Chanal, J. (2008). Optimal learning in optimal contexts: The role of self-determination in education. Canadian Psychology, 49(3), 233-240.
Hamari, J., Shernoff, D. J., Rowe, E., Coller, B., Asbell-Clarke, J., & Edwards, T. (2016). Challenging games help students learn: An empirical study on engagement, flow and immersion in game-based learning. Computers in Human Behavior, 54, 170-179.
Hanus, M. D., & Fox, J. (2015). Assessing the effects of gamification in the classroom: A longitudinal study on intrinsic motivation, social comparison, satisfaction, effort, and academic performance. Computers & Education, 80, 152-161. doi: 10.1016/j.compedu.2014.08.019
Hardre, P. L., & Reeve, J. (2003). A motivational model of rural students' intentions to persist in, versus drop out of, high school. Journal of Educational Psychology, 95(2), 347-356. doi:10.1037/0022-0663.95.2.347
Jenkins, H., Purushotma, R., Weigel, M., Clinton, K., & Robison, A. J. (2009). Confronting the challenges of participatory culture: Media education for the 21st century. Cambridge, MA, USA: MIT Press.
Jonassen, D. H. (2008). Meaningful learning with technology. Upper Saddle River, NJ, USA: Prentice Hall.
King, A. (1993). From sage on the stage to guide on the side. College teaching, 41(1), 30-35.
Legault, L., Green-Demers, I., & Pelletier, L. (2006). Why do high school students lack motivation in the classroom? Toward an understanding of academic amotivation and the role of social support. Journal of Educational Psychology, 98(3), 567-582. doi: 10.1037/0022-0663.98.3.567
Maehr, M. L., & Meyer, H. A. (1997). Understanding motivation and schooling: Where we've been, where we are, and where we need to go. Educational Psychology Review, 9(4), 371-409. doi: 10.1023/A:1024750807365.
Mayer, R. E. (2002). Rote versus meaningful learning. Theory into practice, 41(4), 226-232. doi: 10.1207/s15430421tip4104_4
McClean, S., & Crowe, W. (2017). Making room for interactivity: using the cloud-based audience response system Nearpod to enhance engagement in lectures. FEMS microbiology letters, 364(6). doi: 10.1093/femsle/fnx052
Mekler, E. D., Brühlmann, F., Tuch, A. N., & Opwis, K. (2017). Towards understanding the effects of individual gamification elements on intrinsic motivation and performance. Computers in Human Behavior, 71, 525-534.
Meyer, D. (2015). Missing the promise of mathematical modeling. Mathematics Teacher, 108(8), 578-583.
Nichol, J., & Watson, K. (2003). Rhetoric and reality - the present and future of ICT in education. British Journal of Educational Technology, 34(2), 131-136.
Nicol, D. J., & Macfarlane-Dick, D. (2006). Formative assessment and self‐regulated learning: A model and seven principles of good feedback practice. Studies in Higher Education, 31(2), 199-218. doi: 10.1080/03075070600572090
Novak, J. D. (2002). Meaningful learning: The essential factor for conceptual change in limited or inappropriate propositional hierarchies leading to empowerment of learners. Science Education, 86(4), 548-571. doi: 10.1002/sce.10032
O’Mahony, T.K., Vye, N.J., Bransford, J.D., Sanders, E.A., Stevens, R., Stephens, R.D., & Soleiman, M.K. (2012). A comparison of lecture-based and challenge based learning in a workplace setting: Course designs, patterns of interactivity, and learning outcomes. Journal of the Learning Sciences, 21(1), 182-206. doi: 10.1080/10508406.2011.611775
Persico, D., Dagnino, F., Earp, J., Manganello, F., Passarelli, M., Pozzi, F., ... Bailey, C. (2017). Report on interviews with experts and informants. Gaming Horizons Deliverable D2.3. Retrieved from https://www.gaminghorizons.eu/deliverables/
Piaget, J. (1974). La prise de conscience. Paris, FR: PUF.
Prensky, M. (2006). Don't bother me, Mom, I'm learning! How computer and video games are preparing your kids for 21st century success and how you can help!. St. Paul, MN, USA: Paragon House.
Prensky, M. (2010). Teaching digital natives: Partnering for real learning. Thousand Oaks, CA, USA: Corwin Press.
Ranieri, M. (2011). Le insidie dell’ovvio. Tecnologie educative e critica della retorica tecno centrica. Pisa, IT: Edizioni ETS.
Russell, T. L. (1999). The no significant difference phenomenon: As reported in 355 research reports, summaries and papers. Raleigh, NC, USA: North Carolina State University.
Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2000a). Intrinsic and extrinsic motivations: Classic definitions and new directions. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 25(1), 54-67.
Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2000b). Self-determination theory and the facilitation of intrinsic motivation, social development, and well-being. American Psychologist, 55(1), 68-78.
Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2002). Overview of self-determination theory: An organismic dialectical perspective. In R. M. Ryan, & E. L. Deci (Eds.), Handbook of self-determination research (pp. 3-33). Rochester, NY, USA: University of Rochester Press.
Sadler, D. R. (1989). Formative assessment and the design of instructional systems. Instructional Science, 18(2), 119-144. doi: 10.1007/BF00117714
Savery, J. R., & Duffy, T. M. (1995). Problem based learning: An instructional model and its constructivist framework. Educational Technology, 35(5), 31-38.
Schultz, W. (2007) Behavioral dopamine signals. Trends in Neurosciences, 30, 203-210.
Schwartz, D. L., Lin, X., Brophy, S., & Bransford, J. D. (1999). Toward the development of flexibly adaptive instructional designs. Hillsdale, MI, USA: Erlbaum.
Serres, M. (2013). Non è un mondo per vecchi. Perché i ragazzi rivoluzionano il sapere. Torino, IT: Bollati Boringhieri.
Slavin, R. E. (1990). Cooperative learning: Theory, research, and practice. Upper Saddle River, NJ, USA: Prentice-Hall.
Tian, L., Han, M., & Huebner, E. S. (2014). Preliminary development of the adolescent students' basic psychological needs at school scale. Journal of Adolescence, 37(3), 257-267. doi: 10.1016/j.adolescence.2014.01.005
Topping, K. (1998). Peer assessment between students in colleges and universities. Review of educational Research, 68(3), 249-276.
Vallerand, R. J., & Ratelle, C. F. (2002). Intrinsic and extrinsic motivation: A hierarchical model. In E. L. Deci & R. M. Ryan (Eds.), Handbook of self-determination research (pp. 37–64). Rochester, NY, USA: University of Rochester Press.
Vallerand, R. J., Fortier, M. S., & Guay, F. (1997). Self-determination and persistence in a real-life setting: Toward a motivational model of high school dropout. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 72, 1161–1176. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.72.5.1161
Vallerand, R. J., Koestner, R., & Pelletier, L. G. (2008). Reflections on self-determination theory. Canadian Psychology, 49(3), 257-262.
Vansteenkiste, M., Lens, W., & Deci, E. L. (2006). Intrinsic versus extrinsic goal contents in self-determination theory: Another look at the quality of academic motivation. Educational Psychologist, 41(1), 19-31.
Vansteenkiste, M., Sierens, E., Goossens, L., Soenens, B., Dochy, F., Mouratidis, A., ...Wim Beyers (2012). Identifying configurations of perceived teacher autonomy support and structure: Associations with self-regulated learning, motivation and problem behavior. Learning and Instruction, 22(6), 431-439. Retrieved from http://selfdeterminationtheory.org/SDT/documents/2012VansteenkisteLI.pdf
Vansteenkiste, M., Simons, J., Lens, W., Sheldon, K. M., & Deci, E. L. (2004). Motivating learning, performance, and persistence: The synergistic effects of intrinsic goal contents and autonomy-supportive contexts. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 87(2), 246-260.
Vygotsky, L. S. (1980). Mind in society: The development of higher psychological processes. Harvard, MA, USA: Harvard University Press.
Willingham, D. T. (2009). Why don't students like school? A cognitive scientist answers questions about how the mind works and what it means for the classroom. San Francisco, CA, USA: Jossey-Bass.
Wouters, P., van Nimwegen, C., van Oostendorp, H., & van Der Spek, E. D. (2013). A meta-analysis of the cognitive and motivational effects of serious games. Journal of Educational Psychology, 105(2), 249-265.
Alivernini, F., & Lucidi, F. (2008). The Academic Motivation Scale (AMS): Factorial structure, invariance and validity in the Italian context. Testing, Psychometrics, Methodology in Applied Psychology, 15, 211–220.
Ames, C. (1990). Motivation: What teachers need to know. Teachers College Record, 91(3), 409-421.
Anolli, L., & Mantovani, F. (2011). Come funziona la nostra mente. Apprendimento, simulazione e Serious Games. Bologna, IT: il Mulino.
Antinucci, F. (2001). La scuola si è rotta. Roma-Bari, IT: Laterza.
Ausubel, D. P., Novak, J. D., & Hanessian, H. (1968). Educational psychology: A cognitive view. New York, NY, USA: Holt Rinehart and Wilson.
Berlyne, D. E. (1960). Conflict, arousal, and curiosity. New York, NY, USA: McGraw-Hill.
Bruner, J. S. (1961). The act of discovery. Harvard Educational Review, 31(1), 21-32.
Calvani, A. (Ed.). (2007). Tecnologia, scuola, processi cognitivi: per una ecologia dell'apprendere. Milano, IT: Franco Angeli.
Cecchinato, G., & Papa, R. (2016). Flipped classroom: Un nuovo modo di insegnare e apprendere. Torino, IT: UTET Università.
Cohen, J. (1988). Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences (2nd ed.). Hillsdale, NJ, USA: Erlbaum.
Covington, M. V. (2000). Goal theory, motivation, and school achievement: An integrative review. Annual Review of Psychology, 51(1), 171-200.
Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (1987). The support of autonomy and the control of behavior. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 53(6), 1024-1037. doi: 10.1037/0022-3514.53.6.1024
Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (2000). The “what” and “why” of goal pursuits: Human needs and the self-determination of behavior. Psychological Inquiry, 11(4), 227-268.
Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (2008). Facilitating optimal motivation and psychological well-being across life's domains. Canadian Psychology, 49(1), 14-23.
Deterding, S., Dixon, D., Khaled, R., & Nacke, L. (2011). From game design elements to gamefulness: defining gamification. Proceedings of the 15th international academic MindTrek conference: Envisioning future media environments, Tampere, Finland.
Dewey, J. (2007). Experience and education. New York, NY, USA: Simon and Schuster.
Dicheva, D., Dichev, C., Agre, G., & Angelova, G. (2015). Gamification in education: a systematic mapping study. Journal of Educational Technology & Society, 18(3), 75-88.
Festinger, L. (1962). A theory of cognitive dissonance. Stanford, CA, USA: Stanford University Press.
Foschi, L. C., & Cecchinato, G. (2018). Flipped classroom: risultati di una sperimentazione condotta presso l'IIS Bosso-Monti di Torino. RicercAzione, 10(1), 195-216.
Freudenthal, H. (2006). Revisiting mathematics education: China lectures (Vol. 9). Amsterdam, NL: Springer Science & Business Media.
Gee, J. P. (2003). What Video Games Have to Teach Us about Learning and Literacy. New York, NY, USA: Palgrave-Macmillan.
Guay, F., Ratelle, C. F., & Chanal, J. (2008). Optimal learning in optimal contexts: The role of self-determination in education. Canadian Psychology, 49(3), 233-240.
Hamari, J., Shernoff, D. J., Rowe, E., Coller, B., Asbell-Clarke, J., & Edwards, T. (2016). Challenging games help students learn: An empirical study on engagement, flow and immersion in game-based learning. Computers in Human Behavior, 54, 170-179.
Hanus, M. D., & Fox, J. (2015). Assessing the effects of gamification in the classroom: A longitudinal study on intrinsic motivation, social comparison, satisfaction, effort, and academic performance. Computers & Education, 80, 152-161. doi: 10.1016/j.compedu.2014.08.019
Hardre, P. L., & Reeve, J. (2003). A motivational model of rural students' intentions to persist in, versus drop out of, high school. Journal of Educational Psychology, 95(2), 347-356. doi:10.1037/0022-0663.95.2.347
Jenkins, H., Purushotma, R., Weigel, M., Clinton, K., & Robison, A. J. (2009). Confronting the challenges of participatory culture: Media education for the 21st century. Cambridge, MA, USA: MIT Press.
Jonassen, D. H. (2008). Meaningful learning with technology. Upper Saddle River, NJ, USA: Prentice Hall.
King, A. (1993). From sage on the stage to guide on the side. College teaching, 41(1), 30-35.
Legault, L., Green-Demers, I., & Pelletier, L. (2006). Why do high school students lack motivation in the classroom? Toward an understanding of academic amotivation and the role of social support. Journal of Educational Psychology, 98(3), 567-582. doi: 10.1037/0022-0663.98.3.567
Maehr, M. L., & Meyer, H. A. (1997). Understanding motivation and schooling: Where we've been, where we are, and where we need to go. Educational Psychology Review, 9(4), 371-409. doi: 10.1023/A:1024750807365.
Mayer, R. E. (2002). Rote versus meaningful learning. Theory into practice, 41(4), 226-232. doi: 10.1207/s15430421tip4104_4
McClean, S., & Crowe, W. (2017). Making room for interactivity: using the cloud-based audience response system Nearpod to enhance engagement in lectures. FEMS microbiology letters, 364(6). doi: 10.1093/femsle/fnx052
Mekler, E. D., Brühlmann, F., Tuch, A. N., & Opwis, K. (2017). Towards understanding the effects of individual gamification elements on intrinsic motivation and performance. Computers in Human Behavior, 71, 525-534.
Meyer, D. (2015). Missing the promise of mathematical modeling. Mathematics Teacher, 108(8), 578-583.
Nichol, J., & Watson, K. (2003). Rhetoric and reality - the present and future of ICT in education. British Journal of Educational Technology, 34(2), 131-136.
Nicol, D. J., & Macfarlane-Dick, D. (2006). Formative assessment and self‐regulated learning: A model and seven principles of good feedback practice. Studies in Higher Education, 31(2), 199-218. doi: 10.1080/03075070600572090
Novak, J. D. (2002). Meaningful learning: The essential factor for conceptual change in limited or inappropriate propositional hierarchies leading to empowerment of learners. Science Education, 86(4), 548-571. doi: 10.1002/sce.10032
O’Mahony, T.K., Vye, N.J., Bransford, J.D., Sanders, E.A., Stevens, R., Stephens, R.D., & Soleiman, M.K. (2012). A comparison of lecture-based and challenge based learning in a workplace setting: Course designs, patterns of interactivity, and learning outcomes. Journal of the Learning Sciences, 21(1), 182-206. doi: 10.1080/10508406.2011.611775
Persico, D., Dagnino, F., Earp, J., Manganello, F., Passarelli, M., Pozzi, F., ... Bailey, C. (2017). Report on interviews with experts and informants. Gaming Horizons Deliverable D2.3. Retrieved from https://www.gaminghorizons.eu/deliverables/
Piaget, J. (1974). La prise de conscience. Paris, FR: PUF.
Prensky, M. (2006). Don't bother me, Mom, I'm learning! How computer and video games are preparing your kids for 21st century success and how you can help!. St. Paul, MN, USA: Paragon House.
Prensky, M. (2010). Teaching digital natives: Partnering for real learning. Thousand Oaks, CA, USA: Corwin Press.
Ranieri, M. (2011). Le insidie dell’ovvio. Tecnologie educative e critica della retorica tecno centrica. Pisa, IT: Edizioni ETS.
Russell, T. L. (1999). The no significant difference phenomenon: As reported in 355 research reports, summaries and papers. Raleigh, NC, USA: North Carolina State University.
Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2000a). Intrinsic and extrinsic motivations: Classic definitions and new directions. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 25(1), 54-67.
Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2000b). Self-determination theory and the facilitation of intrinsic motivation, social development, and well-being. American Psychologist, 55(1), 68-78.
Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2002). Overview of self-determination theory: An organismic dialectical perspective. In R. M. Ryan, & E. L. Deci (Eds.), Handbook of self-determination research (pp. 3-33). Rochester, NY, USA: University of Rochester Press.
Sadler, D. R. (1989). Formative assessment and the design of instructional systems. Instructional Science, 18(2), 119-144. doi: 10.1007/BF00117714
Savery, J. R., & Duffy, T. M. (1995). Problem based learning: An instructional model and its constructivist framework. Educational Technology, 35(5), 31-38.
Schultz, W. (2007) Behavioral dopamine signals. Trends in Neurosciences, 30, 203-210.
Schwartz, D. L., Lin, X., Brophy, S., & Bransford, J. D. (1999). Toward the development of flexibly adaptive instructional designs. Hillsdale, MI, USA: Erlbaum.
Serres, M. (2013). Non è un mondo per vecchi. Perché i ragazzi rivoluzionano il sapere. Torino, IT: Bollati Boringhieri.
Slavin, R. E. (1990). Cooperative learning: Theory, research, and practice. Upper Saddle River, NJ, USA: Prentice-Hall.
Tian, L., Han, M., & Huebner, E. S. (2014). Preliminary development of the adolescent students' basic psychological needs at school scale. Journal of Adolescence, 37(3), 257-267. doi: 10.1016/j.adolescence.2014.01.005
Topping, K. (1998). Peer assessment between students in colleges and universities. Review of educational Research, 68(3), 249-276.
Vallerand, R. J., & Ratelle, C. F. (2002). Intrinsic and extrinsic motivation: A hierarchical model. In E. L. Deci & R. M. Ryan (Eds.), Handbook of self-determination research (pp. 37–64). Rochester, NY, USA: University of Rochester Press.
Vallerand, R. J., Fortier, M. S., & Guay, F. (1997). Self-determination and persistence in a real-life setting: Toward a motivational model of high school dropout. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 72, 1161–1176. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.72.5.1161
Vallerand, R. J., Koestner, R., & Pelletier, L. G. (2008). Reflections on self-determination theory. Canadian Psychology, 49(3), 257-262.
Vansteenkiste, M., Lens, W., & Deci, E. L. (2006). Intrinsic versus extrinsic goal contents in self-determination theory: Another look at the quality of academic motivation. Educational Psychologist, 41(1), 19-31.
Vansteenkiste, M., Sierens, E., Goossens, L., Soenens, B., Dochy, F., Mouratidis, A., ...Wim Beyers (2012). Identifying configurations of perceived teacher autonomy support and structure: Associations with self-regulated learning, motivation and problem behavior. Learning and Instruction, 22(6), 431-439. Retrieved from http://selfdeterminationtheory.org/SDT/documents/2012VansteenkisteLI.pdf
Vansteenkiste, M., Simons, J., Lens, W., Sheldon, K. M., & Deci, E. L. (2004). Motivating learning, performance, and persistence: The synergistic effects of intrinsic goal contents and autonomy-supportive contexts. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 87(2), 246-260.
Vygotsky, L. S. (1980). Mind in society: The development of higher psychological processes. Harvard, MA, USA: Harvard University Press.
Willingham, D. T. (2009). Why don't students like school? A cognitive scientist answers questions about how the mind works and what it means for the classroom. San Francisco, CA, USA: Jossey-Bass.
Wouters, P., van Nimwegen, C., van Oostendorp, H., & van Der Spek, E. D. (2013). A meta-analysis of the cognitive and motivational effects of serious games. Journal of Educational Psychology, 105(2), 249-265.